Read the following passage and answer the item that follows. Your answer to this item should be based on the passage only.

Banyan trees are revered across much of South and Southeast Asia and are commonly found in temple courtyards and village centres, often standing where other large trees have long since been cleared for cultivation or settlement. Their fig-like fruit supports an unusually wide range of birds and bats even in seasons when little other food is available in the surrounding cleared landscape, and where these fruit-eating visitors continue to visit sacred banyans in otherwise disturbed areas, other tree species growing nearby have been found to establish more readily.

On the basis of the passage given above, the following assumptions have been made:

1. Sacred trees can function as keystone species in human-modified landscapes.

2. Banyan trees are physiologically capable of establishing in cleared, open ground where other large trees cannot.

3. Reverence for a tree species can indirectly support broader biodiversity.

4. Fruit-eating birds and bats disperse seeds of tree species other than the banyan.

Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?